1 Guidance and Counselling
Early Childhood Development Education Guidance and Counselling Dr. Geoffrey Wango Counselling Psychology University of Nairobi Dr. Geoffrey Wango is a Senior Lecturer in Counselling Psychology at the University of Nairobi. . Dr. Wango has authored several publications on Counselling, Education and Gender including: Counselling in the School: A Handbook for Teachers (Wango & Mungai, 2007); School Administration and Management: Quality Assurance and Standards in Schools (Wango, 2009); School Finance Management: Fiscal Management to Enhance Governance and Accountability (Wango & Gatere, 2012); Early Childhood Development Education Guidance and Counselling (Wango, Kimani, Osaka, Githinji & Amayo, 2015); Counselling Psychology in Kenya: A Contemporary Review of the Developing World (Wango, 2015); Study Skills for Secondary School Learners (Wango & Gatere, 2016); and, Parenting: Counselling in the Home (Wango & Gatere, In Press). 10/10/2015
2 Rationale Teachers and counsellors have a significant influence on the child. This is because teachers and counsellors have an immense understanding of children gained through working closely with each other, interacting with several children, consultations with parents and discussions with a variety of professionals. It is therefore important that teachers and counsellors, especially those working with children in early childhood, gain expertise on working effectively with children at this critical stage. Teachers and counsellors dealing with children in Early Childhood Development and Education (EDCE) should be equipped with knowledge and skills to assist such children. Among the essential skills is guidance and counselling, coaching, and mentoring. Several studies have been conducted to find out the implications of early-life experiences on later-life health and wellbeing (Comijs et al., 2007; Green et al., 2010; Kessler, Davis & Kendler, 1997; Kuh et al., 2014; Rodgers, 1996a, 1996b). It has been established that children who are exposed to adversities, such as emotional disturbance, physical abuse or maltreatment, are at an increased risk of poor mental and physical health outcomes later in life, when compared to other children who could have experienced fewer adversities. Psychiatric disorders, in particular, have been shown to have robust links to childhood psychosocial adversities. Further, these social, personality and psychiatric disorders have been shown to persist across the life course into later life. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
3 Rationale Teachers and counsellors dealing with children must both understand the child and at the same time assist them along in their growth and development. Children too come from diverse backgrounds. Additionally, children even in early years may experience psychological disturbance as a result of several factors. Guidance and counselling of children is not the same as of adults. This is majorly because the child-counsellor relationship is an interaction with the child; it is even more demanding when assisting a child in utmost need. Therefore, guiding and counselling children is highly dependent on the personality, personal qualities and professional training of the teacher and counsellor. Overall, the aim of guidance and counselling is to enable the child understand self and others, and cope with life experiences and challenges. This book assists teachers and counsellors, especially those working with children in early childhood, gain expertise on working effectively with children at this critical stage. A number of individual and social (communal) resources have been related to better mental health and low levels of adversity among children. These include improved guidance and counselling services, mentoring and coaching, and enhanced psychotherapeutic services. The aim is to alienate multiple childhood psychosocial adversity that could lead to poorer mental health in later life. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
4 Early Childhood Development and Education (EDCE)
Teaching and Learning (Knowledge and skills) Child Care and Concern Early Childhood Development and Education Guidance and Counselling Guidance and Counselling, Coaching and Mentoring Guidance and counselling is a central aspect of the whole development process. All the activities and services of the school guidance and counselling programme leads to, and help in the child growth and development. Thus, early childhood development and education includes teaching and learning as well as child care and concern (guidance and counselling, coaching and mentoring). 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
5 Objectives To establish the difference between guidance and counselling of pupils in school. To identify some of the issues that pupils face in school. To come up with an effective way of how teachers, parents and counsellors can effectively assist children in ECDE in a collaborative way so as to produce well rounded pupils and students in school. The relationship between greater childhood psychosocial adversity and poorer mental health outcomes is well documented. However, government and schools still devote little or no resources to the emotional and psychological well-being of the child, especially in the early stages of development (Early Childhood Development Education [ECDE]). Yet the ECDE stage offers an opportunity to moderate or mediate a positive relationship that can be conducted by the teacher-counsellor in context. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
6 Purpose To provide information and assistance to pupils and students.
To improve the understanding of self. To help in adapting to life changes or new environment. To provide efficient use of capabilities and talent. To produce a well-rounded being. To assist in psychological and educational needs. ECDE should aim to identify and implement a positive interaction in which the child can develop. This way, teachers and counsellors can create an enabling environment for emotional stability and also identify early-life adversity leading to improved child well being and lowered risk of later-life mental health. Using positively -identified intervention strategies, it is possible to identify the child/ren particularly at risk and assist them in good time. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
7 Content Terms Used in Guidance and Counselling
Ethics and Principles in Guidance and Counselling Qualities of an Effective Counsellor Types and Stages in the Counselling Process Skills and Techniques in Counselling Management of Emotional and Psychological Challenges Role of ECDE Trainers, Teachers and Parents in Guidance and Counselling Identifying, Counselling and Referring Children with Emotional and Developmental Challenges Identifying, Rehabilitating and Counselling Children with Special Needs Identifying and Counselling People affected by Drugs and Substance Abuse Supportive and Referral Services Educators, particularly teachers, have the potential to be at the forefront of issues that affect children and assist them in schooling, including in academic and career development. It is important to examine the implementation of safe school programmes that promote child health and wellbeing. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
8 Introduction Guidance and counselling practice has been part of traditional and modern living. In traditional society guidance and counselling, teaching, coaching and mentoring was provided by parents, older children, relatives and elders. They guided and counselled young people in matters of life. Girls and boys were equipped with life skills. This was to prepare children and youth for adulthood. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
9 Introduction In the modern world, guidance and counselling is still provided by parents, and in addition teachers and counsellors. It is important for the teacher and counsellor in Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE) to assist children in school, and guide parents and guardians on the various challenges of life. Modern life is full of challenges. The ECDE teacher requires to identify some of the challenges faced by children, especially in early development, in order to assist them. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
10 Challenges of Modern Living
Challenges faced by children include: Growing up and challenges of upbringing Changing social relationships such as family, teachers and community Starting school Academic performance Future career These challenges need to be adequately addressed so that they do not result in crises such as: School dropout Emotional disturbance Truancy and indiscipline 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
11 Challenges of Modern Living
There are several challenges in modern living. These challenges affect the child and may disrupt their lives. They include the following: Divorce and separation Drug and substance abuse HIV and AIDS Family violence Child abuse Loss and Death, including of parent or relatives Counsellors must learn how to help children and assist parents to assist children. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
12 Guidance and Counselling
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13 Guidance The term guidance is derived from its root word, ‘guide’, which means to direct, pilot, manage, steer, aid, assist, lead, inform or show the way. The counsellor directs, or steers, the counsellee (client) in a certain direction or path or to a certain course of action. The teacher counsellor is the guide and assists the learner. When guiding children, you will be helping them to: Understand themselves Set realistic goals for themselves Develop their abilities and talents Plan a career in the future Understand their strengths and weaknesses 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
14 Guidance and Counselling
While guidance in its broader usage is strongly established as an educational concept especially in the school, it is not confined to education. Guidance is also used in relation to good parenting. This for instance is valid in the parental role that educational institutions, especially the school, are frequently linked with, and in the role of teachers as surrogate parents. The terms guidance and counselling are further linked with the role of teaching and coaching, mentoring and modelling of pupils/students by teachers and other professionals. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
15 Counselling Counselling is a healing process through which the teacher seeks to establish a relationship in which the child can express his or her thoughts and feelings on the situation. The counsellor has to have certain skills and expertise. Skills and techniques enable the counsellor to attend to the client with precision and professional competence. The goal of counselling is to enable the client experience a renewal of energy within the self to enable him/her go on with their lives. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
16 Guidance and Counselling
It is more of information giving. Thus, it is mainly preventive and developmental. It is more exploratory. Mutual consultation and reasoning is important. It is initiated by the counsellor. It is initiated by the client / counsellee. It is more general. It is more personal and confidential. It is based on factual information or knowledge. Decision-making is at an intellectual level. It deals with feelings and emotions. Counselling operates at an emotional level. It can be achieved within a short time. It is a process and therefore takes more time. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
17 Role of Teachers and Parents
One of the major roles of a teacher and parent is to promote decision-making in the child within a healthy environment. This in turn leads to healthy populations. However, the complexity of the social (communal) system makes it difficult to attribute the exact variables in performance of the child to specific cognitive processes especially in a Global World. Several behavioural and cognitive models have been proposed to assist in child growth and personality development in an effort to promote healthy growth. Nonetheless, it is not possible to identify and prescribe a single model that leads to optimal performance, especially for both short- and long-term predictions. The role of the teacher and parent proposed within the ECDE model aims provides the best compromise between competing models in which both the teacher and parent continuously complement each other. The performance of the ECDE model in a teacher – parent relationship is more multi-disciplinary a across multiple cultures. In addition, the teacher – parent model reveals distinct patterns of parental and communal values, including a merger of values and morals, play and decision-making processes leading to improved growth and development. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
18 Role of ECDE Trainers ECDE trainers are responsible for the training of teachers. This includes creating awareness on the importance of ECDE. ECDE trainers perform the following roles: Facilitating development to enhance support for child in ECDE. Guiding and directing on the management of ECDE. Collecting data on ECDE for action and implementation. Conducting seminars, workshops and conferences for ECDE. Providing linkages to assist in referral cases for complex issues. This includes counsellors, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, paediatricians, hospitals and other centres. Advocating and sensitizing on ECDE. ECDE trainers also equip teachers and parents with knowledge and skills to: (1) understand children and their behaviour; (2) assist children in pre-schools; and, (3) identify children with emotional difficulty. There is a growing interest among educational researchers, particularly in Educational Psychology to develop and apply computational models (that is, cognitive and at times behavioural) to assist in child growth and development. It is hoped that the classical models and tools would help teachers guide pupils and students in overall learning including in career development and other decision-making processes. Despite this noble interest, classical models and assessment tools are also influenced by the many computational assays available today. There are the national goals of education, just as there are the international threshold such as the Millennium and social development goals. In addition, Educational Psychology pegs knowledge on several psychologists such as William James, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygostky, Thorndike and others. There are many potential reasons for a synchronization of ideas, but two important factors are outstanding, that is, (a) precise characterizations of behavioural and cognitive processes; and, (b) optimal, externally valid paradigms for assessing learning (schooling and education). 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
19 Role of ECDE Parents A parent is the first teacher. It is the responsibility of parents to ensure that they provide an opportunity for the child to benefit from ECDE. Parents participate in the development of education of their child by providing a conductive learning environment as follows: Parents take and collect the child from school. This ensures the safety of the child. Provide physical facilities and infrastructure. These include: classroom, toilet, playing ground and kitchen. Parents provide a healthy and nutritious diet for the child. Pay any subsidies to assist in the day-to-day running of the school, including any extra salaries. Parents also take part in fundraising activities. Parents provide background and up-to-date information on the child. This includes medical history and other relevant information such as special diet that is important to the teachers. Parent can help identity certain challenges in a child. They can then discuss with the teacher and counsellor, and thus allow for early intervention. Parents check on homework and other important aspects such as health and nutrition of the child. Parents provide additional support such as technical knowledge in their area of expertise such as construction and as guests. They can also donate materials for teaching and learning. Parents have an impact on the child and this has implications for a wide range of cognitive tasks that involve learning from experience. In particular, psychologists findings indicate that children have differential learning rates for positive and negative outcomes. This can be captured in various behavioural patterns that can be shared with parents leading to enhanced learning and attributed to a higher achievement in the child. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
20 Role of Teachers Teachers in pre-school are in charge of the child at a tender age. The teacher is therefore an important link for the child as they connect between the home and the outside world. Teachers are surrogate parents and hence offer care and concern for the child. Duties and responsibilities of the teacher include: Facilitating learning. It is the teacher who assists the child to learn. This is by enforcing prior information and creating new knowledge and skills. In addition, the teacher prepares and develops child-friendly teaching and learning materials for use in class. Parenting the child while in school. This requires that the teacher gives attention, care and love to the child. Guiding the child on appropriate conduct. Children at an early age learn several activities including language and how to behave. This requires the teacher to maintain the child’s interests while at the same time enhancing the development of additional skills. These include observation, creativity, turn-taking and reasoning. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
21 Role of Teachers Assisting and comforting the child. The child often misses out on their parents. The child may feel abandoned and/or lonely – the teacher creates a friendly relationship and comforts the child by reassuring them they are safe and secure. Identifying and assisting children with difficulties. The interaction throughout the day between the child and the teacher enables keen observation of the child. Teachers are able to identify children with adjustment problems or learning difficulty and assist them. The teacher can also discuss with individual parents. Maintaining up-to-date administrative and professional records. The teacher keeps and maintains records on the child including class attendance (class register) and progress records as well as teaching and learning records such as schemes of work, lesson plans and records of work. Collaboration with the parent assists the child to adjust to schooling at an early stage and also prepares the child for life in the outside world. This is to enable the development of the child in various ways, that is, physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually and psychologically. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
22 Counselling and Therapeutic Services
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23 Ethical Principles of Counselling
Ethics are sets of rules that influence a person’s behaviour. Counselling ethics refer to the moral standards that guide the process and practice of counselling. The six ethical principles of counselling are: Beneficence. Counsellor must always promote the well-being of the client. Non-maleficence. Counsellor offering assistance to a client must avoid harming the client, in this case the learner. Autonomy. Counsellor must respect the right of the individual person to take responsibility for himself or herself, even if he or she is a child. Fidelity. Counsellor must be trustworthy and committed to the counselling relationship. Justice. Counsellors must treat fairly all clients. This is based on commitments to equal opportunities irrespective of any differences such as gender, ethnicity, religion or social status. Self-interest. Counsellor is encouraged to develop competence through professional knowledge and personal development activities, in order to be able to work effectively with the client. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
24 Counselling Skills and Techniques
Active listening Use of silence Probing Questioning Confrontation Self disclosure Encouraging the client Reflection Teaching An effective counsellor makes use of several skills and techniques in order to be effective in the counselling process. Counselling clients, especially children requires a combination of interpersonal skills (counselling skills and techniques, professional ethics), sufficient knowledge (counsellor competence that includes training, qualifications and continuous professional development) as well as ability to assist in a range of issues. The teacher counsellor has a host of personal attributes that makes counselling effective. Attributes of personality include care for others, sense of responsibility, warm, trust and empathy. Personal attributes are a major factor in an effective counsellor and enhances the effectiveness of counselling. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
25 Challenges / Interferences to effective helping
Transference and Countertransference Cultural and Religious bias (based on differences in traditional / belief (or faith) systems) Biasness and stereotyping of client Attachment to client (child) Sympathy and apathy Lack of empathy (compassionate fatigue) Labelling and categorization Rehearsing (often based on stereotypes and misconceptions) Obstacles and distractions to active listening. This includes poor listening (inadequate listening, filtered listening, sympathetic listening, evaluative listening) 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
26 Management of Emotional and Psychological Challenges
Loss of interest in class Poor concentration Restlessness Sleeping in class Destruction of property Hating and harming other children Acting out Isolation and withdraw, including refusal to play with others Mistrust of adult/s Emotional and psychological problems can affect a child’s development and in turn interfere with learning. There are signs that a teacher and counsellor can observe among the children. It is important for the teacher to identify some of the emotions and assist the child in class. A child may experience a range of psychosocial adversities in a variety of combinations. Childhood adversities are unlikely to occur in isolation since it has been noted that the issues may be both horizontal and vertical. Childhood psychosocial adversity is associated with several factors such as poor cognition (including poor or lack of concentration with schooling), restlessness (poor self-organization), and lower educational (academic) attainment. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
27 Management of Emotional and Psychological Challenges
Although fear and anxiety are a normal part of everyday life, these feelings can become intense and disruptive. The child should be assisted to live a normal life. As much as possible, teachers and counsellors should prevent anxiety through assisting the child by imparting coping skills such as communication and assertive skills as follows: Identifying the cause of the anxiety. Assisting the child to calm down through relaxation techniques. Teaching the child to cope with fear and anxiety through frequent exercises. Showing love and empathy to the child. Verbal assurances. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
28 Management of Emotional and Psychological Challenges
- Allowing and encouraging the child to share their fears and worries. Challenging negative thoughts in the child. Confronting the child’s fears in a safe, controlled environment, for example by keeping things in perspective. For a child who fears insects and animals such as a spider, chameleon or wild animals, let him or her know that they are part of living things and the natural environment. Ensuring child is safe and secure, for example by changing the environment when this is too hostile, such as when a child is living in an abusive home. In extreme cases, the child should be referred to a specialist. The operationalization and quantification of various ways to assist children is varied in available literature. This is because there is no single cumulative approach that enables the capture of multiple adversities. Subsequently, the counsellor has to comprehend a greater breadth of the physical, emotional and psychological experiences as it has been demonstrated that there is an association between greater psychosocial adversity and greater affective symptomology in children, adolescents and later adults. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
29 Management of Emotional and Psychological Challenges
Children who are emotionally and psychologically disturbed will often withdraw from classroom activities and may have poor relationships with teachers and other children. The counsellor can assist the child as follows: Relaxation through exercise such as breathing in and out, swimming, games and play, and other activities. Talking to the parent to find out the cause of the problem and guiding them on healthy eating. Story-telling to reduce stress. Allowing the child enough rest and sleep. Providing a quiet environment for learning. Allowing the children to share their experiences. Using other ways such as play, games, songs and dances to sooth the mind. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
30 Duties and Responsibilities of the ECDE Teacher
Facilitate learning in classroom. Give children attention guide and assist them while in school. Assume the role of parents while in school. Prepare the teaching and learning materials. Observe the behavior of children while in school. Identify and nurture the talent in children. Identify and assist children with special needs, make appropriate referral. Make and update professional records. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
31 Identifying, Counselling and Referring Children with Emotional and Developmental Challenges
Children, like adults, face several challenges in the growing up process. Some children may experience emotional and developmental challenges. In school, such children will behave differently from other learners. Teachers and counsellors should be able to identify behaviour differences to enable them understand why pupils behave the way they do. Some of the emotional and developmental challenges among children in school are outlined. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
32 Identifying, Counselling and Referring Children with Emotional and Developmental Challenges
Aggression Bullying Over - anxiety Truancy Rudeness Lateness Thumb sucking Withdrawing Hyperactivity Children with adversaries tend to be disadvantaged as they have higher risk factors than the ordinary children. In addition, they may be socioeconomically disadvantaged when they experience poor quality support from family, friends and the local community (school, places of worship etc). 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
33 Child Mental Health and Well Being
A child's health and well-being includes emotional stability and mental health. The following ten (10) tips are suggested to enhance child mental health: Ensure child is safe, secure and in good health. Always be there for the child, physically present and emotionally supportive. Bend or lean over to offer a listening ear. Keenly listen to the child and particularly their concerns. This includes questions, fears and anxiety. Allow child adequate breaks at home, school, between meals an when feeding. For example, do not confine them to any one single activity for too long no matter how meaningful you consider it as an adult. Ensure child is always supervised by responsible adults in order to feel safe and secure. Model politeness and forgiveness. This shapes child and enables them to effectively regulate their emotions. Allow child active play that includes politeness and turn taking. Also, allow him or her to express their feelings in appropriate ways. Respond calmly and encourage the child when their emotions are involved. Reassure child of their safety and security especially when threatened. Take time with child to reassure them of your support, care and concerns. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
34 Child Mental Health and Well Being
If child has committed an offence, take time to guide child appropriately. The following are highly discouraged: Do not quarrel the child. Instead, guide him or her in appropriate ways. Do not ignore the child - pay careful attention including listening to him or her. Do not belittle the child – point out any mistakes, state your expectations and guide child. Do not keep child in (solitary) confinement for unnecessary too long. Do not deny child basic needs such as food and sleep as a punishment. Avoid insulting words and asking hurtful questions – when you are upset, calm down or take a quick break in order to control your anger. Avoid lecturing child, moralizing their issues and offering unnecessary advice – teach, model and shape them. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
35 Comprehensive Guidance and Counselling Programme
Personal Academic Career Social / Community Involvment Psychological The importance of guidance and counselling in ECDE promotes better mental health and wellbeing. In addition, it presents opportunities for several interventions that foster greater resilience in later life such as personal, academic, career, social and psychological wellness. This is a particularly important for the developing child as they go through various life spheres. Guidance and counselling is a systematic intervention for addressing social and psychological issues. At a policy level, it may be possible to facilitate greater growth and development of the child through effective interaction with adults including through mentorship. The observation that guidance and counselling can play an effective role in positive mental health outcomes and wellbeing of the child provides an opportunity to promote greater social, psychological as well as environmental intervention, through several different approaches. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
36 Professional Ethics Counselling is an important and sensitive process that touches on a person’s life. A counsellor performs a special function in the school, especially when working with children. Counselling as a profession is guided by professional ethics, principles and standards. The counsellor will observe ethical guidelines to protect both the child and the counsellor. The basic ethical issues in counselling are: Beneficence Non-maleficence Autonomy Fidelity Justice Self-interest. Ethics are set of rules that influence a person’s behaviour. Counselling ethics refer to the moral standards that guide the process and practice of counselling. Ethical issues in counselling are derived from human values and moral philosophy, such as the need to be responsible. This is to give due respect to both the counsellor and the counselle. The counsellor must find ways of carefully balancing situations based on ethical guidelines. The counsellor is encouraged to develop competence through professional knowledge and personal development activities, in order to be able to work effectively with the client. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
37 Supportive and Referral Services
From time to time, the counsellor will come across certain cases that they feel are too difficult for them to handle. This may be in relation to any one of the following: Severe emotional disturbances Extremely aggressive behaviour Highly traumatized child Sexually abused child such as rape, defilement and incest Learners with learning difficulties Legal issues Self injurious behaviour and suicidal tendencies Depression Drug and substance abuse Learners who have suffered or witnessed violence Family related problems or issues Other specialized counselling needs The current book on Early Childhood Development Education highlights the role of teachers, parents and teacher (school) counsellor. However, the role of individual teachers in ECDE is archetypal. In the end, social support has been demonstrated to have the strongest links with mental health, coping and resilience and hence the need for a multi-faceted approach involving various community members. These include medical doctors, social workers, the clergy (pastoral and spiritual nourishment). Therefore, a supportive approach will lead to improved interventions to promote greater social support, an effective means of offsetting psychosocial adversities experienced in childhood and in turn fostering better (improved) mental health into teenage and adulthood. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
38 Supportive and Referral Services
There are several institutions that can assist with various issues. They include the following: National and County Hospitals Mathari Mental and Referral Hospital Kenyatta National Hospital Nairobi Women’s Hospital Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development Kenya Institute of Special Education School Guidance and Counselling Centres Educational Assessment Resource Centres HIV and AIDS Testing and Counselling Centres Rehabilitation centres Reputable Children Homes Hospice and palliative care centres Greater childhood psychosocial adversity is associated with greater later-life mental distress. It has been noted that children with greater levels of individual and social resources tend to experience better (greater) mental health. Several factors have been identified and are associated with later life mental health. They include: education (this comprises quality of education and teachers), family (stability), safety and security), emotional and psychological stability, social support and community cohesion. Best practices in counselling and psychotherapy must inform the development of evidence-based clinical interventions. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
39 References Wango, G. M., Kimani, P. W., Osaka, J., Githinji, S. N., & Amayo, R. A. (2015). Early Childhood Development Education Guidance and Counselling. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
40 References American Counselling Association (2014). ACA Code of Ethics. American Counselling Association. American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM - 5. Washington, D C: American Psychiatric Association. American School Counsellor Association (2012). The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counselling Programs. Alexandria, VA: American School Counsellor Association. Bor, R., & Palmer, S. (2009). A Beginner’s Guide to Training in Counselling and Psychotherapy. Sage. Brown, S., & Lent, R. (2008). (Eds.). Handbook of Counselling Psychology. New York: Wiley. Comijs, H. C., Beekman, A. T. F., Smit, F., Bremmer, M., Tilburg, T. V., & Deeg, D. J. H. (2007). Childhood adversity, recent life events and depression in late life. Journal of Affective Disorders, 103, Conte, C. (2009). Advanced Techniques for Counselling and Psychotherapy. New York: Springer Publishing Company, LLC. Corey, G. (2013). Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks / Cole, Cengage. Culley, S., & Bond, T. (2004). Integrative Counselling Skills in Action. Sage Publications. Egan, E. (2002). The Skilled Helper: A Problem - Management and Opportunity – Development Approach to Helping. Chicago: Brook / Cole. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
41 References Feltham, C., & Horton, I. (Ed.). (2010). The Sage Handbook of Counselling and Psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications. Geldard, K. (ed). (2009). Practical Interventions for Young People at Risk. Sage Publications. Geldard, K., & Geldard, D. (2010). Counselling Adolescents: The Proactive Approach for Young People. Sage Publications. Geldard, K., & Geldard, D. (2012). Counselling Children: A Practical Introduction. Sage. Gibson, R. L., & Mitchell, M. H. (2010). Introduction to Counselling and Guidance. New Delphi: PHI Learning Private Limited. Green, J. G., et al. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication I: Associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, Hornby, G., Hall, C., & Hall, E. (Eds). (2003). Counselling Pupils in Schools. Skills and Strategies for Teachers. Routledge Falmer. Jenkins, P. (2009). Counselling, Psychotherapy and the Law. London: Sage Publications. Kessler, R. C., Davis, C. G., & Kendler, K. S. (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US National Comorbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 27, Kuh, D., Cooper, R., Hardy, R., Richards, M., & Ben-Shlomo, Y. (Eds.) (2014). A life course approach to healthy ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling
42 References McLeod, J. (2013). An introduction to Counselling. Maidenhead: Open University Press. McLeod, J., & McLeod, J. (2011). Counselling Skills: A Practical Guide for Counsellors and Helping Professionals. McGraw-Hill. Palmer, S. (Ed.). (2010). Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: The Essential Guide. SAGE Publications Ltd. Rodgers, B. (1996a). Reported parental behaviour and adult affective symptoms. 1. Associations and moderating factors. Psychological Medicine, 26, Rodgers, B. (1996b). Reported parental behaviour and adult affective symptoms. 2. Mediating factors. Psychological Medicine, 26, Wango, G. M., & Mungai, E. K. (2007). Counselling in the School: A Handbook for Teachers. Nairobi: Phoenix Publishers. Wango, G. M., Kimani, P. W., Osaka, J., Githinji, S. N., & Amayo, R. A. (2015). Early Childhood Development Education Guidance and Counselling. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau. Wango, G. M. (2015). Counselling Psychology in Kenya: A Contemporary Review of the Developing World. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau. Woolfe, R., Strawbridge, S., Douglas, B., & Dryden, W. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of Counselling Psychology. Sage Publications Ltd. 10/10/2015 Early Childhood Development Education, Guidance and Counselling